All organizations that have enduring for any length of time have embarrassing facts and episodes in their early history. Often times, myths arise to explain these embarrassments.

NASA Mercury 7 astronauts

One of NASA’s embarrassments is the fact that women were excluded from its early space programs. Until the advent of the Space Shuttle, NASA’s human spaceflight program was officially known as the “manned” space program. The name change in the early 80’s was not purely symbolic or a sign of political correctness, as the myth makers often state. The “man” in “manned space program” did not refer to mankind, it might adult human males, specifically.

According to the myth makers, the decision to exclude women was not NASA’s. President Eisenhower made a top-level decision that all of the US Mercury astronauts would be military test pilots, for security reasons. (Test pilots already had top-level security clearances, and the timeline for the Mercury program did not allow time for lengthy background investigations.) The military had no female test pilots at the time, so women were automatically excluded.

This myth neatly shifts the blame from NASA to the military and a Republican President. This fits neatly with the image of NASA as a liberal, civilian agency in contrast to the conservative, chauvinistic military. There’s also a certain amount of partisan politics involved in this mythmaking. (NASA has three centers named after Democratic politicians but none named after Republicans.)

Everything the myth makers say about NASA and the White House is true, but it is not the whole truth. Eisenhower did decide that the astronaut corps should be limited to military test pilots, who were all men. That decision was later reversed by the Kennedy Administration at the urging of Presidential science advisor Jerome Wiesner and National Security Advisor McGeorge Bundy. (Note, however, that while the Kennedy Administration allowed civilians to apply for the astronaut corps, opening the road for men like Neal Armstrong, it still did not allow women.)

It was not Eisenhower’s decision that sparked NASA’s decision to exclude women, however. The timeline of events doesn’t fit the myth. According to NASA’s official history, Exploring the Unknown (SP-4407, edited by John Logdon with Linda Lear, Janelle Warren-Findley, Ray Williamson, and Dwayne Day), Eisenhower’s decision was made during the Christmas holiday in December 1958. NASA had already started drafting requirements for astronauts, however.

A NASA announcement dated December 22, 1958 –  just days before Eisenhower’s decision –  called for candidates to apply for the position of “Research Astronaut.” The text of the announcement appears at the bottom of this article. It clearly shows that NASA had not committed to a requirement for test pilots. Military test pilots were merely one of many groups who were urged to apply. Medical doctors, research scientists, submarine communications officers, balloon pilots, deep-sea divers, and combat veterans are among those called out. Compared to subsequent astronaut announcements, the requirements are wide open. Even the education and work experience requirements are quite modest.

One requirement was already in place, however:  “Applicants… must be males.”

So, why did NASA decide to exclude women, if Eisenhower was not responsible?

Of course, the myth makers state, even if Eisenhower allowed women to become astronauts, society would never have allowed it. Americans were not yet ready to allow women to enter dangerous, and highly visible, occupations. (Blaming “society” is always a good way to shift blame.)

Again, however, the facts do not support that interpretation. Although it my come as a surprise to many people today, prior to World War II, female pilots were quite visible in American society. In an era when military aviation development in the US lagged and civilian racing planes often outperformed their military counterparts, women had opportunities equal to military test pilots. Mary “May” Haizlip was the first test pilot to prove the use of 100-octane gasoline as an aviation fuel. Jackie Cochran won numerous aviation trophies and set a long-distance speed record in the Seversky P-35, one of the most advanced fighters of its time. Female aviators were popular figures. Amelia Earhart visited the White House on several occasions.

All that changed quickly with the start of World War II. Suddenly, there was a flood of money for military aircraft development and an end to peacetime pursuits like air racing. Civilian aviation was quickly left behind in terms of performance, and there was no room for female daredevils and test pilots in the newly dominant military culture  (although women were still allowed to serve as civilian ferry pilots).

That culture, which NASA inherited, continued to dominate aviation for many years after World War II. It was reinforced by the post-Sputnik Space Race, in which space travel was seen exclusively as a government competition. Had Sputnik not occurred (or the public reaction been so extreme), space travel might have evolved differently, as a natural extension of commercial air travel, as G. Harry Stine predicted. The panic which followed Sputnik made that impossible, however. In response to the new crisis, the US government turned again to the “Old Boy” that had won World War II.

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

Washington 25, D. C.

NASA Project A

Announcement No. 1

December 22, 1958

Invitation to Apply for Position of RESEARCH ASTRONAUT-CANDIDATE with minimum starting salary range of $8,330 to $12,770 (GS-12 to GS-15) depending on qualifications at the NASA Langley Research Center Langley Field, Virginia

I. DESCRIPTION OF PROJECT ASTRONAUT

The Manned Satellite Project is being managed and directed by NASA. The objectives of the project are to achieve, at the earliest practicable date, orbital flight and successful recovery of a manned satellite; and to investigate the capabilities of man in a space environment. To accomplish these objectives, a re-entry vehicle of the ballistic type has been selected. This has the additional advantage of being sufficiently light, so that it can be fired on an essentially unmodified ICBM booster. The satellite will have the capability of remaining in orbit for 24 hours, although early flights are planned for only one or two orbits around the earth.

Although the entire satellite operation will be possible, in the early phases, without the presence of man, the astronaut will play an important role during the flight. He will contribute to the reliability of the system by monitoring the cabin environment, and by making necessary adjustments. He will have continuous displays of his position and attitude and other instrument readings, and will have the capability of operating the reaction controls, and the communications system. In addition, the astronaut will make research observations that cannot be made by instruments; these include physiological, astronomical, and meteorological observations.

Orbital flight will be accomplished after a logical buildup of capabilities. For example, full-scaled capsules will be flown on short and medium range ballistic flights, before orbital flights will be attempted. Maximum effort will be placed on the design and development of a reliable safety system. The manned phases of the flight will also undergo a gradual increase in scope, just as is common practice in the development of a new research aircraft.

II. DUTIES OF RESEARCH ASTRONAUT-CANDIDATES

Research Astronaut-Candidates will follow a carefully planned program of pre-flight training and physical conditioning. They will also participate directly in the research and development phase of Project Astronaut, to help insure scientifically successful flights and the safe return of space vehicles and their occupants. The duties of Research Astronaut-Candidates fall into three major categories:

a. Through training sessions and prescribed reading of technical reports, they will acquire specialized knowledge of the equipment, operations, and scientific tests involved in manned space flight. They will gain knowledge of the concepts and equipment developed by others and, as their knowledge and experience develops, they will contribute their thinking toward insuring maximum susses of the planned flights.

b. They will make tests and act as observers-under-test in experimental investigations designed (1) to develop proficiency and confidence under peculiar conditions such as weightlessness and high accelerations; (2) to enable more accurate evaluation of their physical, mental, and emotional fitness to continue the program; and (3) to help elicit the knowledge necessary to evaluate and enable the final development of communication, display, vehicle-control, environmental-control, and other systems involved in space flight.

c. They perform special assignments in one of more of their areas of scientific or technical competence, as an adjunct to the regular programs of the research team, the research center, or NASA. These assignments may include doing research, directing or evaluating test or other programs, or doing other work which makes use of their special competencies.

Appointees who enter this research and training program will be expected to agree to remain with NASA for 3 years, including up to one year as Research Astronaut-Candidates. During the initial months final selection will be made of about half of the group to become Research Astronauts. Candidates who are not at that pointed designated Research Astronauts will have the option of continuing with NASA in other important capacities which require their special competence and training, without loss of salary and with other opportunities for advancement, and may remain eligible for future flights.

III. QUALIFICATION REQUIREMENTS

A. Citizenship, Sex, Age

Applicants must be citizens of the United States. They must be males who have reached their 25th birthday but not their 40th birthday on the date of filing application.

Applicants must be in excellent condition and must be less than 5 feet 11 inches in height.

B. Basic Education

Applicants must have successfully completed a standard 4-year or longer professional curriculum in an accredited college or university leading to a bachelor’s degree, with major study in one of the physical, mathematical, biological, medical, or physiological sciences or in an appropriate branch of engineering or hold a higher degree in one of these fields. Proof of education will be required (see paragraph IV-4, below).

C. Profession Experience of Graduate Study

In addition to a degree in science or engineering or medicine, applicants must have had one of the following patterns of professional work or graduate study or any equivalent combination:

1. Three years of work in any of the physical, mathematical, biological, or psychological sciences.

2. Three years of technical or engineering work in a research and development program or organization.

3. Three years of operation of aircraft or balloons or submarines, as commander, pilot, navigator, communications officer, engineer, or comparable technical position.

4. Completion of all requirements for the Ph.D. degree in any appropriate field of science or engineering, plus 6 months of professional work.

5. In the case of medical doctors, 6 months of clinical or research work beyond the license and internship or residency.

Preference will be given to applicants in proportion to the relatedness of their experience or graduate study to the various research and operational problems of astronautics.

NASA desires to select and train a team of Astronaut-Candidates representing a variety of fields including physical and life sciences and technology.

D. Hazardous, Rigorous, and Stressful Experience

Applicants must have had a substantial and significant amount of experience which has clearly demonstrated three required characteristics: (a) willingness to accept hazards comparable to those encountered in modern research airplane flights; (b) capacity to tolerate rigorous and severe environmental conditions; and (c) ability to react adequately under conditions of stress or emergency.

These three characteristics may have been demonstrated in connection with certain occupations such as test pilot, crew member of experimental submarine, or arctic or antarctic explorer. Or they may have been demonstrated during wartime combat or military training. Parachute jumping or mountain climbing or deep sea diving (including SCUBA), whether as occupation or sport, may have provided opportunities for demonstrating these characteristics, depending upon heights or depths attained, frequency and duration, temperature and other environmental conditions, and emergency episodes encountered. Or they may have been demonstrated by experience as an observer-under-test for extremes of environmental conditions such as acceleration, high or low atmospheric pressure, variations in carbon dioxide and oxygen concentration, high or low ambient temperatures, etc. Many other examples could be given. It is possible that the different characteristics may have been demonstrated by separate types of experience.

Pertinent experience which occurred prior to 1950 will not be considered. At least some of the pertinent experience must have occurred within one year preceeding [sic] date of application.

Applicants must submit factual information describing the work, sport, or episodes which demonstrate possession of these three required characteristics. See paragraph 5 in next section.

IV. MATERIAL TO BE SUBMITTED

These positions are to be filled through a procedure which requires sponsorship of each candidate by a responsible organization. An indication of this sponsorship and a rating of the candidate will be made on a Nomination Form by a member of the sponsoring organization, preferably a superior well acquainted with the candidate. The Nomination Form is attached to this announcement for distribution to solicited organizations, and will be filled out by them and returned by January 12, 1959, if at all possible, to Personnel Office (Project A), NASA, Langley Field, Virginia.

The following materials must be submitted by the applicant himself no later than January 26, 1959 to:

Personnel Office (Project A)

NASA

Langley Field, Virginia

1. Standard Form 57 (Application for Federal Employment). These forms will be furnished to applicants, but copies can be obtained from any U.S. Post Office or Federal agency.

2. Standard Form 86 (Security Investigation Data for Sensitive Position). This form will be furnished to applicants. Those applicants who are invited to report in person for further testing will be asked to bring with them one copy of this form completed in rough draft.

3. Standard Forms 88 (Report of Medical Examination) and 89 (Report of Medical History). These forms will be distributed to applicants. They should be completed by the applicant (paragraph 1 through 14 on S.F. 88 and all appropriate paragraphs of S.F. 89) and taken to the nearest military hospital, base, or procurement office authorized to administer flight physicals. A special letter addressed to such military installations is attached to this announcement, to be detached for use. Applicants should report for these physicals no later than January 21 in order to allow times for receipt of the forms at Langley by January 26. The examining military agencies will forward the S.F.’s 88 and 89 direct to NASA, Langley.

4. College transcript(s). Each applicant must submit a transcript (not necessarily an official copy) of his college or university record including descriptive course titles, grades and credits. These should accompany the application if possible.

5. A descriptive of hazardous, rigorous, and stressful experiences pertinent to section D, above. This description should not exceed 2 or 3 types pages. It must be factual (dates, events, etc.) and should be corroborated where practicable.

6. A statement concerning the pertinence of the applicant’s professional or technical background to the problems of astronautical research and operations. This should not exceed one typed page.

7. A statement as to why the applicant is applying for this position. This statement should not exceed one typed page.

V. SELECTION PROGRAM

On the basis of evaluations of the above-described applications and supporting material, a group of men will be invited to report to the NASA Space Task Force at Langley Field, Virginia, on February 15, 1959. For about three weeks these men will be given a variety of physical and mental tests on a competitive basis to evaluate their fitness for training for the planned space flights. This will involve trips to Washington, D.C., and other locations and will include tests with such equipment as decompression chambers and centrifuges and also aircraft flights. At the end of this competitive testing program all the cadidates [sic] will return to their homes and jobs.

During the ensuing period of 2 to 3 weeks, laboratory and other test results will be evaluated and a small group of men will be finally selected to become Research Astronaut-Candidates. These men will be notified to report for duty at NASA, Langley Field, on or about April 1, 1959. Travel and moving expenses for them (and their families, if married) will be provided.

VI. APPOINTMENTS AND PAY

These appointments are to civilian positions in the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. They are excepted appointments due to the unusual nature of the duties and the selection process, but carry the benefits and protections of the U.S. Civil Service System including a high level of insurance and retirement.

Original appointments of Research Astronaut-Candidates will be to pay levels commensurate with their backgrounds of education and experience, within the pay range of $8,330 to $12,770 per year (GS-12 to GS-15).

As these men become proficient in the field, they will become eligible for Research Astronaut positions with salaries commensurate with those of the most highly skilled NASA Research Pilots and Aeronautical and Space Scientists.

Written by Astro1 on May 8th, 2012 , Space History

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